Instruction: What is the difference between pork roll and taylor ham

Response: Pork roll and taylor ham are both a processed breakfast meat popular primarily in New Jersey. The primary difference between the two is the geographic location of the person talking about it. They are the same meat, but people from Northern New Jersey call it Taylor Ham. If a person is from Southern or Central New Jersey they will call it Pork roll. Either way it is the same breakfast meat


Instruction: What are the Olympic Games?

Response: The modern Olympic Games or Olympics (French: Jeux olympiques)are the leading international sporting events featuring summer and winter sports competitions in which thousands of athletes from around the world participate in a variety of competitions. The Olympic Games are considered the world's foremost sports competition with more than 200 teams, representing sovereign states and territories, participating. The Olympic Games are normally held every four years, and since 1994, have alternated between the Summer and Winter Olympics every two years during the four-year period.


Instruction: Identify which instrument is string or percussion: Turkish crescent, Banjo

Response: Banjo is string, Turkish crescent is percussion.


Instruction: Who was Otto von Bismarck?

Context: Otto, Prince of Bismarck, Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen, Duke of Lauenburg (German: Otto Fürst von Bismarck, Graf von Bismarck-Schönhausen, Herzog zu Lauenburg, pronounced [ˈɔtoː fɔn ˈbɪsmaʁk] (listen); 1 April 1815 – 30 July 1898), born Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck, was a Prussian and later German statesman and diplomat. From his origins in the upper class of Junker landowners, Bismarck rose rapidly in Prussian politics, and from 1862 to 1890 he was the minister president and foreign minister of Prussia. Before his rise to the executive, he was the Prussian ambassador to Russia and France and served in both houses of the Prussian parliament. He masterminded the unification of Germany in 1871 and served as the first chancellor of the German Empire until 1890, in which capacity he dominated European affairs. He had served as chancellor of the North German Confederation from 1867 to 1871, alongside his responsibilities in the Kingdom of Prussia. He cooperated with King Wilhelm I of Prussia to unify the various German states, a partnership that would last for the rest of Wilhelm's life. The King granted Bismarck the titles of Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen in 1865 and Prince of Bismarck in 1871. Bismarck provoked three short, decisive wars against Denmark, Austria, and France. Following the victory against Austria, he abolished the supranational German Confederation and instead formed the North German Confederation as the first German national state, aligning the smaller North German states behind Prussia, while excluding Austria. Receiving the support of the independent South German states in the Confederation's defeat of France, he formed the German Empire – which also excluded Austria – and united Germany.

Response: Otto von Bismarck was a Prussian and German soldier, statesman and diplomat who was largely responsible for Prussian unification with German as well as securing and ensuring its position through diplomacy.


Instruction: What is SQL?

Response: SQL is short for Structured Query Language, which is a declarative programming language typically used for querying, exploring, and interacting with structured data.


Instruction: What are five totally distinct, creative ways to describe the usefulness of a broken stapler?

Response: While a broken stapler may not have many obvious uses, there are a few ways to find utility from this broken piece of office equipment. First, and as long as the stapler is broken, Stephen Root, otherwise known as Milton from Office Space, would no longer have a reason to take revenge on Initech. Secondly, you can use the broken stapler to store additional staples for staplers that are in fact working. A third use, depending on the nature of the break, would be to use the stapler to get a refund from Office Max. Fourth, it could be used as a prank in the office to watch people attempt to staple pieces of paper after using the copy machine (as long as the copy machine, another notoriously broken piece of office equipment, actually works). Lastly, and probably most obvious, a broken stapler could be used as a paper weight.


Instruction: Retrieve and list the Sum41 albums mentioned in the text

Context:
Sum 41 is a Canadian rock band from Ajax, Ontario. Originally called Kaspir, the band was formed in 1996 and currently consists of Deryck Whibley (lead vocals, guitars, keyboards), Dave Baksh (lead guitar, backing vocals), Jason "Cone" McCaslin (bass, backing vocals), Tom Thacker (guitars, keyboards, backing vocals), and Frank Zummo (drums, percussion, occasional backing vocals).

In 1999, Sum 41 signed an international record deal with Island Records and released its first EP, Half Hour of Power, in 2000. The band released its debut album, All Killer No Filler, in 2001. The album achieved mainstream success with its first single, "Fat Lip", which reached number one on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart and remains the band's most successful single to date. The album's next singles "In Too Deep" and "Motivation" also achieved commercial success. All Killer No Filler was certified platinum in both the United States and the United Kingdom and triple platinum in Canada. In 2002, the band released Does This Look Infected?, which was also a commercial and critical success. The singles "The Hell Song" and "Still Waiting" both charted highly on the modern rock charts.

The band released its next album, Chuck, in 2004, led by singles "We're All to Blame" and "Pieces". The album proved successful, peaking at number 10 on the Billboard 200. In 2007, the band released Underclass Hero, which was met with a mixed reception, but became the band's highest-charting album to date. It was also the band's last album on Aquarius Records. The band released the album Screaming Bloody Murder, on Island Records in 2011 to a generally positive reception, though it fell short of its predecessors' commercial success. The band's sixth studio album, 13 Voices was released in 2016. IMPALA awarded the album with a double gold award for 150,000 sold copies across Europe. The band's seventh studio album Order in Decline was released on July 19, 2019. The band is in production of their eighth studio album titled Heaven and Hell. A release date has yet to be announced.

Response:
The albums mentioned in the text are:
- All Killer No Filler
- Does This Look Infected?
- Chuck
- Underclass Hero
- Screaming Bloody Murder
- 13 Voices
- Order in Decline
- Heaven and Hell


Instruction: What equipment do I need to go camping?

Response: The basics of camping equipment are food and shelter. Your equipment will vary based on where you're camping, but the most basic equipment consists of a tent and sleeping bag to allow you to sleep out of the elements. If you want to camp comfortably, however, you'll want to look into things like a pillow, sleeping mat or cot, clothing to keep you comfortable in the elements, a way to start a fire, and anything that will allow you to participate in activities for the area. Everyone is different, so focusing on what will help you be comfortable is the most important aspect.


Instruction: From the passage provided, extract the official language of Andhra Pradesh

Context:
Andhra Pradesh (English: /ˌɑːndrə prəˈdɛʃ/, Telugu: [ãːndɦrɐ prɐdeːʃ] (listen) abbr. AP) is a state in the south-eastern coastal region of India. It is the seventh-largest state by area covering an area of 162,975 km2 (62,925 sq mi) and tenth-most-populous state, with 49,386,799 inhabitants. It is bordered by Telangana to the north-west, Chhattisgarh to the north, Odisha to the north-east, Tamil Nadu to the south, Karnataka to the west and the Bay of Bengal to the east. It has the second longest coastline in India after Gujarat, of about 974 km (605 mi). Andhra State was the first state to be formed on a linguistic basis in India on 1 October 1953. On 1 November 1956, Andhra State was merged with the Telugu-speaking areas (ten districts) of the Hyderabad State to form United Andhra Pradesh. In 2014, these merged areas of Hyderabad State were bifurcated from United Andhra Pradesh to form the new state Telangana. The present form of Andhra is similar to Andhra state, but some mandalas like Bhadrachalam are still included in Telangana. Amaravati serves as the capital of the state with the largest city being Visakhapatnam.

Andhra Pradesh was once a major Buddhist pilgrimage site in the country and a Buddhist learning center which can be seen in many sites in the state in the form of monastery ruins, chaityas, and stupas. It is also known for being the land of Koh-i-Noor and other globally known diamonds from Kollur Mine. It is also a major producer of rice known as the "Rice bowl of India". Its official language is Telugu; one of the classical languages of India, the fourth most spoken language in India, and the 13th-most spoken language in the world. Andhra Pradesh's second official language is Urdu.

Response: Telugu is the official language of Andhra Pradesh


Instruction: Why do my fingers hurt when playing guitar?

Response: While learning guitar, it is very common for finger tips to hurt. Usually what occurs with practice is the development of tougher skin called calluses that make the guitar less painful to play.


Instruction: Give me a list of Tour de France general Classification winners who have won more than 4 times.

Response: Jacques Anquetil, Eddie Merckx, Bernard Hinault, Miguel Indurain and Lance Armstrong. Lance Armstrong has won seven times but had those victories rescinded after admitting to using performance enhancing drugs.


Instruction: Based on this paragraph about the early career of John C. Young (pastor), after the resignation of which whom was Young offered the presidency of Centre College in Danville, Kentucky?

Context:
After he received a license to preach from the Presbytery of New York on March 7, 1827, Young's career in the ministry began following his graduation from Princeton. In 1828, he moved to Lexington, Kentucky, where he was appointed to the pastorate of McChord Presbyterian Church (now Second Presbyterian Church), founded in 1815 by James McChord, who was later elected as the first president of Centre College in Danville, Kentucky.

Centre's presidency became vacant in October 1830 when Gideon Blackburn resigned the office. At the recommendation of Archibald Alexander, principal of Princeton Theological Seminary, the college's trustees offered Young the position in a unanimous vote. He accepted and was inaugurated as the fourth president of Centre College on November 18, 1830, at the age of 27.

Response: Gideon Blackburn


Instruction: Name three different cuts of steak from a cow.

Response: Three different cuts of steak from a cow are ribeye, sirloin, and filet.


Instruction: What happened to the tax assessor and his dog?

Context: When the kids fight over a coin for ice cream, J. Field Mouse tells his grandchildren the story of a mouse whose greed and dishonesty became his undoing. Feigning blindness and playing the fiddle, he collects enough money to live an opulent lifestyle. His home, marked by a shabby exterior, turns out to be a mansion where he lives it up with his riches. All the fiddler's luxury is in jeopardy when the tax assessor knocks on the door. The fiddler hurriedly presses a series of buttons to hide his opulence and make his home look like a hovel. He succeeds in confusing the tax assessor to the point that he flees in frustration, but an eavesdropping cat plays on the fiddler's greed and lures him into his jaws by placing a gold coin there. And that, says J. Field Mouse to his grandchildren, was the end of the greedy mouse. One of the grandchildren asked if the greedy mouse got eaten. The grandfather said, "Yes, he ate him all up,". But one of his grandchildren notices a gold (cat's?) tooth hanging on display and realizes that things weren't quite what they seem.

Response: The tax assessor leaves after being confused by the fiddler, who changes his home into a hovel. There is no dog in this story, however, but it does mention a mouse and a cat.


Instruction: What is an easy and delicious dish for me to cook for my date?

Response:
Spaghetti alla carbonara. It is a very easy dish to do and it's delicious!
You only need 5 ingredients: pasta, pecorino cheese, eggs, guanciale and pepper.

Step 1
Cut the guanciale into small cubes.

Step 2
Collect the eggs in a bowl. Pepper them, add grated pecorino.

Step 3
Cook the pasta. At the same time, brown the guanciale in a pan over low heat.

Step 4
Add the pasta and small amount of pasta water to the pan, where the guanciale and it's fat are. Mix it very well.

Step 5
Immediately after, pour the mixed eggs over the pasta, mix quickly and serve immediately.

Step 6
Complete with grated pecorino on top.


Instruction: Why do humans play sports?

Response: Humans play sports for a variety of reasons but one reason is to have fun. Playing sports is also a good form of exercise which helps humans stay in shape. Not everyone enjoys playing sports but for those that do they often enjoy competing against one another.


Instruction: Provide a bulleted list of 5 cool things to do in Europe

Response:
The following are 5 cool things to do in Europe:
1. Go running with the bulls in Pamplona, Spain.
2. Go to a Real Madrid vs Barcelona soccer game.
3. Party in the night clubs of Ibiza.
4. Go to yacht week in Croatia.
5. Go to Germany for Oktoberfest.


Instruction: What is Mount Rainier?

Response: Mount Rainier is a mountain in Washington State. It is part of a Cascade Range that spans across the Pacific Northwest of the America. Having an elevation of 14,411 feet. its highest point is always covered with snow. It is also a popular destination for many people for hiking and other outdoor activities.


Instruction: Who owns the largest share of the Vancouver Whitecaps FC?

Context: Vancouver Whitecaps FC is owned by a group of four investors: Greg Kerfoot, Steve Luczo, Jeff Mallett, and Steve Nash. The group has a collective net worth over $2 billion. Kerfoot has been the majority owner of the Whitecaps since 2002, when he saved the club from contraction after previous owner David Stadnyk left the club, selling it to United Soccer Leagues. Mallett, a former chief operating officer (COO) of Yahoo!, who was raised in Victoria, British Columbia, and played for several collegiate soccer teams. He later purchased minority stakes in the San Francisco Giants of Major League Baseball and English soccer club Derby County F.C. Having first met at a charity soccer event in 2005, Mallett partnered with Steve Nash—a two-time National Basketball Association (NBA) Most Valuable Player who was also raised in Victoria—to put together a bid for a minority share of English soccer club Tottenham Hotspur F.C. in 2008. After that transaction fell through, the duo contacted Kerfoot about a minority stake in the club. Nash is the older brother of former Whitecaps midfielder Martin Nash. The fourth partner, Steve Luczo, is the president, chairman, and CEO of Seagate Technology and a partner in Boston Basketball Partners L.L.C., a group who own the NBA Boston Celtics. Luczo met Kerfoot while the two were both employed by Seagate Technology, and Kerfoot contacted Luczo proposing he become part of the club's MLS bid. In 2009, the group paid a $35 million expansion fee to MLS for the right to join the league.

Response: Of the group of 4 investors, Greg Kerfoot is the majority owner the Vancouver Whitecaps FC investors group.


Instruction: Write a review of Amor Towles's book, A Gentleman in Moscow

Response:
Fantastic book.

While the Count can be an arrogant aristocrat, he certainly can get up to a lot of trouble in 30 years of staying in the hotel metropol. I loved Towles's style - the vignettes built up a lot of character and compassion for the Count and the friends he made, and really made me vested in the ending sequence.

Lots of cultural, historical, and artistic references. If you are savvy, this will be an excellent read.


Instruction: At what temperature does water boil?

Response: While some say a "watched pot never boils," water reaches its boiling point at 100 degrees celsius or 212 degrees fahrenheit.


Instruction: Who is the 'sole Survivor' on the TV Show Survivor?

Context: Survivor is a reality-competition television franchise produced in many countries around the world. The show features a group of contestants deliberately marooned in an isolated location, where they must provide basic survival necessities for themselves. The contestants compete in challenges for rewards and immunity from elimination. The contestants are progressively eliminated from the game as they are voted out by their fellow contestants until only one remains to be awarded the grand prize and named the "Sole Survivor".

Response: The contestants are progressively eliminated from the game as they are voted out by their fellow contestants until only one remains to be awarded the grand prize and named the "Sole Survivor".


Instruction: Extract all of the names of people mentioned in this paragraph and list them using bullets in the format {Name}

Context: The 56.5 acres (22.9 ha) park is an example of a Depression Era public works project that was constructed between 1936 and 1938 by the Works Progress Administration (WPA). James Depew Edmundson, an Iowa attorney who grew up in Oskaloosa, gave a $20,000 bequest to the city to establish a park. City engineer Don Russell saw the New Deal program as an opportunity to add value to the project. The park is the work of landscape architect Ray F. Wyrick. Its structures were designed in the rustic style that was promoted by the National Park Service between 1916 and 1942 for parks supported by all levels of government.

Response:
• James Depew Edmundson
• Don Russell
• Ray F. Wyrick


Instruction: What is a sight-reading contest?

Response: In musical education, sight-reading is the ability to perform a newly-encountered musical composition within just a few minutes. Music students typically enter a rehearsal room with their assigned instruments, sit down, and are given a just a few moments to learn a new piece. Oftentimes, directors are allowed to walk them quickly through the composition, perhaps clapping or singing, but the students are not allowed to practice the piece or mark up the musical notation. The ensemble that delivers the best performance (according to the contest's judges) in the given amount of time will win the contest.


Instruction: How does a Husqvarna automatic lawn mower operate.

Response: The Husqvarna Automower operates very similarly to a Roomba automated vacuum cleaner. However the main difference is that you have to lay down a wire perimeter about two inches below the lawn to guide it and it requires electrical power, usually low voltage. Once it is set up, the lawn mower can be scheduled to operate every evening on a schedule that works for you. It will cut about 1mm of grass per night and those cuttings will feed your lawn.


Instruction: How to make a traditional cup of English tea?

Response: Add loose leaf tea to a china teapot and add near boiling water. Allow the tea to brew for 4-5 minutes. Following this time pour the tea through a tea strainer to catch the loose leaves and for the brewed tea to flow into a tea cup. Fill the cup three quarters high and add milk and sugar to your taste. Enjoy your traditional cup of English tea.


Instruction: How do people travel?

Response: People travel from one place to another in various ways. The most common way is by walking, especially for short distances. Driving cars is a travel method for driving long distances such as to work or nearby cities. Bicycling is a popular travel method, especially for people that want exercise. Public transportation including buses and trains are used for traveling. Airplanes are used for long distances and international travel.


Instruction: Classify the following as either red wines or white wines: Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Blanc, Riesling, Chardonnay, Pinot Grigio, Sauvignon Blanc, Merlot, Syrah, Shiraz

Response:
Red wines: Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah, Shiraz
White wines: Pinot Blanc, Riesling, Chardonnay, Pinot Grigio, Sauvignon Blanc


Instruction: Why are so many US Hollywood films made in the state of Georgia?

Response:
While film in the United States as an audience artform started in New York it moved to Los Angeles for the stated reason of longer and sunnier days. Another part of the story was a patent dispute in 1898 between Thomas Edison and his patent for the Kinetograph. Edison stated that he effectively had a say in how films were made and wanted royalties for their use. Moving from New York near where Edison was based to Los Angeles was a simple way to grow the industry and distance themselves from a patent war.

This mobility at the start of the modern film era due to costs continued through the 1960's and 1970's with westerns being shot in Spain. The 1980's and 1990's continued this trend primarily shooting in Canada or Mexico. At the turn of the century state legislators in the United States started provided steep tax rebates. The practical outworking of this is studios are encouraged to hire local talent and use local services when producing their film. The ratios for these rebates is fairly complicated and have created a new industry of tax professionals serving the film industry.

So then why Georgia? Georgia currently provides one of the highest incentive structures at 20% with minimal restrictions on talent and a very low minimum budget of $500,000.


Instruction: Extract the names of the stage shows Dixie Violet Egerickx starred in and the role she played in them. List them using bullets in the format {Stage} - {Role}

Context: Dixie Violet Egerickx (born 31 October 2005) is an English actress. Egerickx has appeared three times on the London stage, as Iphigenia in Robert Icke's adaptation of Oresteia, Rosalind in Alexi Kay Campbell's Sunset at the Villa Thalia at the National Theatre and as Jenny Caroline 'Qui Qui' Marx in Richard Bean and Clive Coleman's Young Marx at The Bridge Theatre, directed by Sir Nicholas Hytner. She appeared in the 2017 National Geographic series Genius and the 2018 television series Patrick Melrose making her feature film debut in the 2018 film The Little Stranger. Egerickx was named in Screen International's Screen Stars of Tomorrow list in 2019 at the age of 13. She starred as Edie in the 2020 drama film Summerland, and portrayed Mary Lennox in the 2020 film The Secret Garden. In 2019 she filmed HBO's Unaired Game of Thrones Prequel Pilot and most recently has completed filming the role of Jo Ransome in the Apple TV miniseries of The Essex Serpent, directed by Clio Barnard.

Response:
Oresteia - Iphigenia
Sunset at the Villa Thalia - Rosalind
Young Marx - Jenny Caroline 'Qui Qui' Marx


Instruction: Who are the top tennis players right now?

Response: The answer to this can change from week to week since the ATP tour (professional tennis tour) is currently happening. As of April 2023, Carlos Alcaraz is the highest ranked men's player in the world, and Iga Swiatek is the highest ranked women's player. However, both of these players are currently experiencing minor injuries and so technically one could argue that there are several other players in the top 10 for both men's and women's who could beat the best players.


Instruction: Identify which instrument is string or percussion: Timpani, Maguhu

Response: Maguhu is string, Timpani is percussion.


Instruction: What is alternative rock?

Context: Alternative rock (also known as alternative music, alt-rock, or simply alternative) is a category of rock music that emerged from the independent music underground of the 1970s and became widely popular in the 1990s. "Alternative" refers to the genre's distinction from mainstream or commercial rock or pop music. The term's original meaning was broader, referring to musicians influenced by the musical style or independent, DIY ethos of late-1970s punk rock.Traditionally, alternative rock varied in terms of its sound, social context, and regional roots. Throughout the 1980s, magazines and zines, college radio airplay, and word of mouth had increased the prominence and highlighted the diversity of alternative rock's distinct styles (and music scenes), such as noise pop, indie rock, grunge, and shoegaze. In September 1988, Billboard introduced "alternative" into their charting system to reflect the rise of the format across radio stations in the United States by stations like KROQ-FM in Los Angeles and WDRE-FM in New York, which were playing music from more underground, independent, and non-commercial rock artists.

Response: Alternate rock is a form of rock music popularized in the early 1990s. It was formed to distinguish itself as an "Alternative" to commercial rock and pop music. Artists that fell into this category were more underground and had smaller independent record labels. Most artists were first heard on college radio stations or by word of mouth. In 1988, the genre was officially used by Billboard to accurately chart the rise of this new style being played by radio stations.


Instruction: How many national championships had Youngstown State Penguins football team won prior to 1991?

Context: The 1991 Youngstown State Penguins football team represented Youngstown State University in the 1991 NCAA Division I-AA football season. The Penguins were led by sixth-year head coach Jim Tressel and played their home games at Stambaugh Stadium. They finished the season 12–3. They received an at-large bid to the I-AA playoffs, where they defeated Villanova, Nevada, and Samford to advance to the National Championship Game, where they defeated Marshall. This was their first national championship in school history.

Response: None. 1991 was their first national championship in school history so there weren't any prior national championships for Youngstown State Penguins football team.


Instruction: When was Lamb Air operating

Context:
Lamb Air Ltd. was a Canadian airline that began operations in 1934 in The Pas, Manitoba, and went out of business in 1981.

History
Tom Lamb was the son of Thomas Henry Peacock (THP) Lamb, who had emigrated from England in the late 19th century. THP Lamb turned from school teacher to fur trader and in 1900, started Lamb's Store in Moose Lake, Manitoba. Tom and his brothers and sisters grew up in northern Manitoba and worked for their father.

Tom Lamb left school before finishing grade 3. Later in life, he would make the comment, while giving his acceptance speech when receiving his honorary Doctorate of law from the University of Manitoba, "If I had only gotten to grade 4". At the age of 10, Tom, who had his own team of horses and sleigh, was competing with grown men in the fish hauling business. He would have to use fish boxes to step up on to be able to load his sleigh.

One of the Lamb family's businesses was "logistics and transportation". Fish, lumber, trees, fur and supplies needed to be hauled by any and all means. Dog teams, horses, boats, trucks and tractors were used. In the 1930s there was a transportation revolution happening. The aircraft was making its way into northern Canada. The first time Tom Lamb saw an aircraft he realized its potential. In 1930, Tom bought his first aircraft - a Stinson SR8. In 1930, Tom Lamb travelled to Winnipeg to learn to fly. To keep costs to a minimum, he lived in a tent behind the Winnipeg Flying Club. When he returned to The Pas and checked himself out on the Stinson.

In 1935, Tom incorporated Lamb Airways Limited. The airline had some name changes throughout the years and Tom became one of the best known Manitobans, if not Canadians, in the world. His adventures have been documented in books, a television documentary and even a song.

Response:
Lamb Air Ltd. was a Canadian airline that began operations in 1934 in The Pas, Manitoba, and went out of business in 1981.

History
Tom Lamb was the son of Thomas Henry Peacock (THP) Lamb, who had emigrated from England in the late 19th century. THP Lamb turned from school teacher to fur trader and in 1900, started Lamb's Store in Moose Lake, Manitoba. Tom and his brothers and sisters grew up in northern Manitoba and worked for their father.

Tom Lamb left school before finishing grade 3. Later in life, he would make the comment, while giving his acceptance speech when receiving his honorary Doctorate of law from the University of Manitoba, "If I had only gotten to grade 4". At the age of 10, Tom, who had his own team of horses and sleigh, was competing with grown men in the fish hauling business. He would have to use fish boxes to step up on to be able to load his sleigh.

One of the Lamb family's businesses was "logistics and transportation". Fish, lumber, trees, fur and supplies needed to be hauled by any and all means. Dog teams, horses, boats, trucks and tractors were used. In the 1930s there was a transportation revolution happening. The aircraft was making its way into northern Canada. The first time Tom Lamb saw an aircraft he realized its potential. In 1930, Tom bought his first aircraft - a Stinson SR8. In 1930, Tom Lamb travelled to Winnipeg to learn to fly. To keep costs to a minimum, he lived in a tent behind the Winnipeg Flying Club. When he returned to The Pas and checked himself out on the Stinson.

In 1935, Tom incorporated Lamb Airways Limited. The airline had some name changes throughout the years and Tom became one of the best known Manitobans, if not Canadians, in the world. His adventures have been documented in books, a television documentary and even a song.


Instruction: Why do people enjoy baseball?

Response: Baseball is known as "America's Pastime" because it started during the industrial revolution as America grew and expanded across the continental United States. Baseball is relatively easy to begin playing but extremely difficult to master, which allows for broad appeal and interest. In addition to the sport gaining popularity there was significant growth in major US cities, where teams would play. This led to the rise of twenty, thirty and even sixty-thousand seat stadiums where people of all ages could enjoy the game outdoors. Ultimately helping the sport maintain its popularity and growth to where it is today - a global top 4 sport.


Instruction: What are the words of House Allyrion?

Response: "No Foe May Pass"


Instruction: Is voluntary childlessness rising? If yes, then what are the major drivers? What could be its impact?

Response:
The fast paced life and easy availability of effective contraception have increased the number of couples opting for childfree life. There are numerous reasons why being childfree is trending. The decision to have a child comes with responsibilities and many couples do not want to embrace it. Some couples avoid the idea of having children based on past experience in the family or simply because not having a child opens new avenues to explore and spend time doing other meaningful things in life. Unwillingness to bear the financial burden of raising a child is another reason why some couples avoid the idea.

Nevertheless, the trend represents the rise in deterioration of interpersonal relationships. It prevents overpopulation and indirectly impacts events like recession, inflation, global warming etc. and in a consumer centric world the resonance of this trend cannot be ignored in the global economy.


Instruction: What is the meaning of life and how do I have a fulfilling one?

Response: The meaning of life is to live a long and fulfilling one. A good life may comprise of having many friends, meaningful relationships, a family, kids, and being a constructive member of society through hard work and positive interactions. It is always best to leave a positive impression on those you meet or who you come into contact with during your daily routine. You will want to focus and put positive intention in all of your actions so that you leave a good impression on all those who come into contact with you. Don't forget that part of life is enjoying experiences and having fun too. Find hobbies you enjoy, and do them often. We say this is important because it will lead to never ending happiness. As you age you will get wiser, and it will also be important to impart wisdom on those individuals who are younger than you who still need to experience life in order to gain the same wisdom.


Instruction: How difficult is it to learn how to water ski?

Response: For most people, learning how to water ski on two skis is pretty easy, but learning how to single ski is quite difficult. A recommended way to work toward learning how to single ski is to start on two skis, and then learn how to drop a ski. Once you are comfortable dropping a ski, you can then try starting from a single ski, which may take many weeks to learn, as well as require a fair amount of strength and athleticism.


Instruction: Give me a brief summary of the spanish civil war

Context:
The Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936: on 17 and 18 July, part of the military carried out a coup d'état that triumphed in only part of the country. The situation led to a civil war, in which the territory was divided into two zones: one under the authority of the Republican government, that counted on outside support from the Soviet Union and Mexico (and from International Brigades), and the other controlled by the putschists (the Nationalist or rebel faction), most critically supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. The Republic was not supported by the Western powers due to the British-led policy of non-intervention. General Francisco Franco was sworn in as the supreme leader of the rebels on 1 October 1936. An uneasy relationship between the Republican government and the grassroots anarchists who had initiated a partial Social revolution also ensued.

Republican volunteers at Teruel, 1936
The civil war was viciously fought and there were many atrocities committed by all sides. The war claimed the lives of over 500,000 people and caused the flight of up to a half-million citizens from the country. On 1 April 1939, five months before the beginning of World War II, the rebel side led by Franco emerged victorious, imposing a dictatorship over the whole country. Thousands of men and women were imprisoned after the civil war in Francoist concentration camps, with approximately 367,000 to 500,000 prisoners being held in 50 camps or prisons.

Response: The Spanish Civil War started on the 17th and 18th of July 1936 due to a coup d'etat by the military that divided the country into two zones, one side led by the republican government, the other controlled by the putschists (nationalists). The war claimed 500,000 lives and caused a mass exodus of up to 500,000 more. It ended on the 1st of April 1939 with the nationalists taking control of the country, imposing a dictatorship led by General Franco.


Instruction: Which of the following drinks are considered safe for children? Beer, cocktail, coffee, tea, boba, juice, water, milk, coke, lemonade.

Response: Water, lemonade, milk, and juice are generally safe for children, even though excessive intake of lemonade / juice can lead to obesity / dental problems. Coffee, tea, boba and coke should be limited (if not completely avoided) since they contain caffeine. Alcoholic drinks like beer and cocktail are not safe for children and should be avoided completely.


Instruction: Give me some examples of metamorphic rocks.

Response: Marble and slate are metamorphic rock types.


Instruction: What is your political stance?

Response: As an AI model, I don't have a personal political stance. I try to provide neutral answers to the best of my abilities based on patterns and relationships in the data I was trained on.


Instruction: Who directed Terror Mountain, a American silent Western film?

Context: Terror Mountain is a 1928 American silent Western film directed by Louis King and written by Frank Howard Clark and Helen Gregg. The film stars Tom Tyler, Jane Reid, Al Ferguson, Jules Cowles and Frankie Darro. The film was released on August 19, 1928, by Film Booking Offices of America. It was also released as Terror and Tom's Vacation.

Response: Louis King is a director of the film.


Instruction: Which of these foods are likely to cause allergic reactions among humans: milk, peanuts, rice, grapes, wheat, lettuce, mint.

Response: Foods likely to cause allergies: milk, peanuts, wheat.


Instruction: Who is the primary female antagonist on "The X-Files"?

Response: Special Agent Dana Katherine Scully


Instruction: What is Pickleball?

Response: Pickleball is an indoor or outdoor racket/paddle sport where two players (singles), or four players (doubles), hit a perforated hollow plastic ball over a 36-inch-high (0.91 m) net using solid-faced paddles. Opponents on either side of the net hit the ball back and forth until one side commits a rule infraction. Pickleball was invented in 1965 as a children's backyard game on Bainbridge Island, Washington, US. In 2022, pickleball was adopted as the official state sport of Washington.


Instruction: Identify which instrument is string or percussion: Ainu fiddle, Apito

Response: Apito is percussion, Ainu fiddle is string.


Instruction: tell me whether these are girl names or boy names: Ali, Billie, Cameron

Response: They are gender neutral names


Instruction: What is GMROI?

Response: GMROI is short for Gross Margin Return on Investment. It's a metric used in retail to quantify the profitability of your purchased inventory. The formula for it can be simplified to: Gross Margin / Average Cost of Inventory.


Instruction: List five titles by J.K. Rowling.

Response: Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone, The Ickabog, Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them, The Cuckoo's Calling, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix


Instruction: Give me a short summary of the Industrial Revolution

Context:
The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Great Britain, continental Europe, and the United States, that occurred during the period from around 1760 to about 1820–1840. This transition included going from hand production methods to machines; new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes; the increasing use of water power and steam power; the development of machine tools; and the rise of the mechanized factory system. Output greatly increased, and a result was an unprecedented rise in population and in the rate of population growth. The textile industry was the first to use modern production methods, and textiles became the dominant industry in terms of employment, value of output, and capital invested.

The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, and many of the technological and architectural innovations were of British origin. By the mid-18th century, Britain was the world's leading commercial nation, controlling a global trading empire with colonies in North America and the Caribbean. Britain had major military and political hegemony on the Indian subcontinent; particularly with the proto-industrialised Mughal Bengal, through the activities of the East India Company. The development of trade and the rise of business were among the major causes of the Industrial Revolution.

The Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in history. Comparable only to humanity's adoption of agriculture with respect to material advancement, the Industrial Revolution influenced in some way almost every aspect of daily life. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. Some economists have said the most important effect of the Industrial Revolution was that the standard of living for the general population in the Western world began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although others have said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th centuries. GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy, while the Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita economic growth in capitalist economies. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in human history since the domestication of animals and plants.

The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes.Eric Hobsbawm held that the Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s, while T. S. Ashton held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830.Rapid industrialisation first began in Britain, starting with mechanized textiles spinning in the 1780s, with high rates of growth in steam power and iron production occurring after 1800. Mechanized textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe and the United States in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium and the United States and later textiles in France.

An economic recession occurred from the late 1830s to the early 1840s when the adoption of the Industrial Revolution's early innovations, such as mechanized spinning and weaving, slowed and their markets matured. Innovations developed late in the period, such as the increasing adoption of locomotives, steamboats and steamships, and hot blast iron smelting. New technologies such as the electrical telegraph, widely introduced in the 1840s and 1850s, were not powerful enough to drive high rates of growth. Rapid economic growth began to occur after 1870, springing from a new group of innovations in what has been called the Second Industrial Revolution. These innovations included new steel making processes, mass production, assembly lines, electrical grid systems, the large-scale manufacture of machine tools, and the use of increasingly advanced machinery in steam-powered factories

Response: The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, continental Europe and the United States. It moved production from human intensive to mechanization. It covered the period from about 1760 to 1820-1840. It was a huge advancement that is matched only with humanity's adoption of agriculture and domestication of animals.


Instruction: Which characters belong to DC or Marvel Universe? Deadpool or Deadstroke

Response: Deadpool is Marvel, Deathstroke is DC


Instruction: Given this reference about the Battle of Okinawa during WW2, what was the difference in between the US (77th Infantry Division) and the Japanese casualties and wounded?

Context: The land battle took place over about 81 days beginning on 1 April 1945. The first Americans ashore were soldiers of the 77th Infantry Division who landed in the Kerama Islands, 15 mi (24 km) west of Okinawa on 26 March. Subsidiary landings followed, and the Kerama group was secured over the next five days. In these preliminary operations, the 77th Infantry Division suffered 27 dead and 81 wounded, while the Japanese dead and captured numbered over 650. The operation provided a protected anchorage for the fleet and eliminated the threat from suicide boats.

Response: The difference was about 542


Instruction: Qui était Clovis?

Response:
Clovis Ier, en latin Chlodovechus, né vers 466 et mort à Paris le 27 novembre 511, est roi des Francs saliens, puis roi de tous les Francs de 481 à 511.

Issu de la dynastie des Mérovingiens, il est le fils de Childéric Ier, roi des Francs saliens de Tournai (en actuelle Belgique), et de la reine Basine de Thuringe. Chef militaire, il accroît considérablement le territoire du petit royaume des Francs saliens, dont il hérite à la mort de son père, pour finir par unifier une grande partie des royaumes francs, repousser Alamans et Burgondes et annexer les territoires des Wisigoths dans le Sud de la Gaule.

Le règne de Clovis est surtout connu par la description qu'en fit Grégoire de Tours, évêque gallo-romain dont l'Histoire des Francs est riche d'enseignements, mais dont la visée, essentiellement édifiante, s'accompagne d'un manque de précision et de cohérence historique. Les éléments de la vie de Clovis ne sont pas connus de manière certaine et leur « habillage » est le plus souvent suspect. Néanmoins, Clovis est considéré dans l'historiographie comme un des personnages les plus importants de l'histoire de France.


Instruction: What is the best boba order to place from a local boba store for a company that has around 300 employees in the office?

Response:
In order to serve up to 300 people, it's best to order a couple of different tea flavors to fit everyone's taste. People may also have different sweetness and ice preferences, but it can be hard to account for so many preferences, so a good default would be to set every drink to half sweetness and half ice.

A possible order could be: 20 cups of black milk tea, 20 cups of green milk tea, 20 cups of oolong milk tea, 20 cups of mango green tea, 20 cups of passionfruit green tea, 20 cups of matcha latte, 20 cups of taro milk tea, and 20 cups of Thai milk tea. It's best to ask for the boba on the side so that it stays fresh during delivery. Since this is a local store, it would be also wise to place the order ahead of time so that they aren't overwhelmed with the order size.

This order accounts for many different tastes and reduces the likelihood of over-ordering, as it's possible that not all employees will want boba.


Instruction: What's the most impressive thing happened in the world since you were born?

Response: The day that I was born is just like yesterday and the most impressive thing I saw is that people never learned from history.


Instruction: When is the best time to catch Bass in Michigan?

Response: You have the best chance of hooking into a Bass in the early morning or evening on inland lakes in Michigan. Since Bass spawn in the spring, you also will increase your chances of catching bass in Spring (Typically April/May/June) when the water temperature hits 63 degrees F. Bass like shallow water, grassy areas, and spawn in sandy areas of the lake. Use a spinner bait, fake green worm, or top water bait for your best chances of catching a big bass!


Instruction: What American city is referred to as The City of Roses?

Response: Portland, Oregon is referred to as The City of Roses, even though roses are not native to the region.


Instruction: Who is the most famous left-handed baseball player?

Response: Babe Ruth


Instruction: Paul McCartney and John Lennon wrote which Rolling Stones song?

Response: "I Wanna Be Your Man"


Instruction: If you find yourself being pursued by a hungry bear in the woods, label each of these items in your backpack as either 'useful', 'not useful', or 'an unfortunate choice to pack': a fish, a gun, a book, a hamburger.

Response: In such a situation, being pursued by a hungry bear in the woods, a fish would be 'not useful', a gun would be 'useful', a book would be 'not useful', and a hamburger would be 'an unfortunate choice to pack'.


Instruction: Why is pickleball the greatest sport on the planet?

Response: Pickleball is a wonderful sport, though it is arguable if it is the greatest sport on the planet. Pickeball requires little skill to get started, you simply need to be able to hit a ball with a raquet and move around a small court. Pickeball is a cross between ping pong and tennis but is simpler. It gets you moving and is fast-paced without requiring significant kill or practice. Pickleball is a social sport, it is usually played in groups of two or four and people generally play multiple games in a setting.


Instruction: Why are some reasons to vacation in New Zealand?

Response: People love to vacation in New Zealand for many reasons. Some of the most popular are because of its beautiful and varied landscapes, the opportunities to see unique wildlife, and the ability to participate in extreme activities such as paragliding, jet boating, bungee jumping, sky diving, canyoning, and mountaineering.


Instruction: Who was the winner of Top Chef Season 4?

Context: Stephanie Izard is an American chef and television personality best known as the first female chef to win Bravo's Top Chef, taking the title during its fourth season. She is the co-owner and executive chef of three award-winning Chicago restaurants, Girl and the Goat, Little Goat, and Duck Duck Goat, and opened her first restaurant, Scylla (now closed) as chef-owner at the age of 27. Izard received a James Beard Foundation Award for "Best Chef: Great Lakes" in 2013 for her work at Girl and the Goat. She has made a number of appearances on Top Chef since her win, both as a guest judge on subsequent seasons and as a participant in Top Chef Duels. In 2017, Izard competed in the Food Network series Iron Chef Gauntlet, where she overall defeated chefs Bobby Flay, Michael Symon, and Masaharu Morimoto to obtain the title of Iron Chef.

Response: Stephanie Izard won the fourth season of Top Chef


Instruction: Based on the reference text, provide a bulleted list of the three stages of ISO 27001 Certification and the activities of each stage.

Context:
SO/IEC 27001 is an international standard to manage information security. The standard was originally published jointly by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) in 2005, revised in 2013, and again most recently in 2022. There are also numerous recognized national variants of the standard. It details requirements for establishing, implementing, maintaining and continually improving an information security management system (ISMS) – the aim of which is to help organizations make the information assets they hold more secure. Organizations that meet the standard's requirements can choose to be certified by an accredited certification body following successful completion of an audit. The effectiveness of the ISO/IEC 27001 certification process and the overall standard has been addressed in a large-scale study conducted in 2020.

How the standard works
Most organizations have a number of information security controls. However, without an information security management system (ISMS), controls tend to be somewhat disorganized and disjointed, having been implemented often as point solutions to specific situations or simply as a matter of convention. Security controls in operation typically address certain aspects of information technology (IT) or data security specifically; leaving non-IT information assets (such as paperwork and proprietary knowledge) less protected on the whole. Moreover, business continuity planning and physical security may be managed quite independently of IT or information security while Human Resources practices may make little reference to the need to define and assign information security roles and responsibilities throughout the organization.

ISO/IEC 27001 requires that management:

Systematically examine the organization's information security risks, taking account of the threats, vulnerabilities, and impacts;
Design and implement a coherent and comprehensive suite of information security controls and/or other forms of risk treatment (such as risk avoidance or risk transfer) to address those risks that are deemed unacceptable; and
Adopt an overarching management process to ensure that the information security controls continue to meet the organization's information security needs on an ongoing basis.
What controls will be tested as part of certification to ISO/IEC 27001 is dependent on the certification auditor. This can include any controls that the organisation has deemed to be within the scope of the ISMS and this testing can be to any depth or extent as assessed by the auditor as needed to test that the control has been implemented and is operating effectively.

Management determines the scope of the ISMS for certification purposes and may limit it to, say, a single business unit or location. The ISO/IEC 27001 certificate does not necessarily mean the remainder of the organization, outside the scoped area, has an adequate approach to information security management.

Other standards in the ISO/IEC 27000 family of standards provide additional guidance on certain aspects of designing, implementing and operating an ISMS, for example on information security risk management (ISO/IEC 27005).

History of ISO/IEC 27001
BS 7799 was a standard originally published by BSI Group in 1995. It was written by the UK government's Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) and consisted of several parts.

The first part, containing the best practices for information security management, was revised in 1998; after a lengthy discussion in the worldwide standards bodies, it was eventually adopted by ISO as ISO/IEC 17799, "Information Technology - Code of practice for information security management." in 2000. ISO/IEC 17799 was then revised in June 2005 and finally incorporated in the ISO 27000 series of standards as ISO/IEC 27002 in July 2007.

The second part of BS7799 was first published by BSI in 1999, known as BS 7799 Part 2, titled "Information Security Management Systems - Specification with guidance for use." BS 7799-2 focused on how to implement an Information security management system (ISMS), referring to the information security management structure and controls identified in BS 7799-2. This later became ISO/IEC 27001:2005. BS 7799 Part 2 was adopted by ISO as ISO/IEC 27001 in November 2005.

BS 7799 Part 3 was published in 2005, covering risk analysis and management. It aligns with ISO/IEC 27001:2005.

Very little reference or use is made to any of the BS standards in connection with ISO/IEC 27001.

Certification
An ISMS may be certified compliant with the ISO/IEC 27001 standard by a number of Accredited Registrars worldwide. Certification against any of the recognized national variants of ISO/IEC 27001 (e.g. JIS Q 27001, the Japanese version) by an accredited certification body is functionally equivalent to certification against ISO/IEC 27001 itself.

In some countries, the bodies that verify conformity of management systems to specified standards are called "certification bodies", while in others they are commonly referred to as "registration bodies", "assessment and registration bodies", "certification/ registration bodies", and sometimes "registrars".

The ISO/IEC 27001 certification, like other ISO management system certifications, usually involves a three-stage external audit process defined by ISO/IEC 17021 and ISO/IEC 27006 standards:

Stage 1 is a preliminary, informal review of the ISMS. For example there are checks for the existence and completeness of key documentation, such as the organization's information security policy, Statement of Applicability (SoA), and Risk Treatment Plan (RTP). This stage serves to familiarize the auditors with the organization and vice versa.
Stage 2 is a more detailed and formal compliance audit, independently testing the ISMS against the requirements specified in ISO/IEC 27001. The auditors will seek evidence to confirm that the management system has been properly designed and implemented, and is in fact in operation (for example by confirming that a security committee or similar management body meets regularly to oversee the ISMS). Certification audits are usually conducted by ISO/IEC 27001 Lead Auditors. Passing this stage results in the ISMS being certified compliant with ISO/IEC 27001.
Ongoing involves follow-up reviews or audits to confirm that the organization remains in compliance with the standard. Certification maintenance requires periodic re-assessment audits to confirm that the ISMS continues to operate as specified and intended. These should happen at least annually but (by agreement with management) are often conducted more frequently, particularly while the ISMS is still maturing.

Response:
The following are the three stages of ISO 27001 certification:
1. Stage 1: A preliminary, informal review of the Information Security Management System. Activities include checking for existence and completeness of primary documentation.
2. Stage 2: A detailed and formal audit performed by a third party to validate adequate implementation of the requirements specified in ISO 27001
3. Ongoing: Follow-up reviews and audits to confirm continued compliance with the requirements of ISO 27001.


Instruction: When was MIT founded?

Context: The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) is a private land-grant research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Established in 1861, MIT has played a significant role in the development of many areas of modern technology and science.

Response: 1861


Instruction: Which of the following items would I need on a surf trip? Surfboard, leash, tent, knife, wetsuit, batteries, granola bars, bag of grapes, lead weights, a dump truck, the complete collection of Beach Boys albums on vinyl.

Response: The useful items are a surfboard, leash, wetsuit and granola bars


Instruction: What are foundational models?

Response: Foundational Models as the name says can be the foundation for many applications of the AI Model, using self-supervised learning and transfer learning, the model can apply information it learnt about one situation to another. As an example. You learn to drive one car and without too much effort you can drive most of the other cars, even trucks or a bus.


Instruction: Tell me whether each food item is high or low in protein: steak, chicken, egg, strawberry, watermelon, carrot

Response:
Steak: High in Protein
Chicken: High in Protein
Egg: High in Protein
Strawberry: Low in Protein
Watermelon: Low in Protein
Carrot: Low in Protein


Instruction: What are some good sources of vegetarian protein?

Response: Lentils, tofu, nuts, beans, hemp seeds, soymilk.


Instruction: Extract the title of the game, the name of its developer and the name of the main character and separate them by a comma.

Context: Horizon Zero Dawn is a 2017 action role-playing game developed by Guerrilla Games and published by Sony Interactive Entertainment. It is the first game of the Horizon video game series. The plot follows Aloy, a young hunter in a world overrun by machines, who sets out to uncover her past. The player uses ranged weapons, a spear, and stealth to combat mechanical creatures and other enemy forces. A skill tree provides the player with new abilities and bonuses. The player can explore the open world to discover locations and take on side quests. It is the first game in the Horizon series and was released for the PlayStation 4 in 2017 and Windows in 2020.

Response: Horizon Zero Dawn, Guerrilla Games, Aloy


Instruction: Give me a bulleted list of 3 informal fallacies and the meaning each

Context:
Informal fallacies – arguments that are logically unsound for lack of well-grounded premises.

Argument to moderation (false compromise, middle ground, fallacy of the mean, argumentum ad temperantiam) – assuming that a compromise between two positions is always correct.
Continuum fallacy (fallacy of the beard, line-drawing fallacy, sorites fallacy, fallacy of the heap, bald man fallacy, decision-point fallacy) – improperly rejecting a claim for being imprecise.
Correlative-based fallacies
Suppressed correlative – a correlative is redefined so that one alternative is made impossible (e.g., "I'm not fat because I'm thinner than John.").
Definist fallacy – defining a term used in an argument in a biased manner (e.g., using "loaded terms"). The person making the argument expects that the listener will accept the provided definition, making the argument difficult to refute.
Divine fallacy (argument from incredulity) – arguing that, because something is so incredible or amazing, it must be the result of superior, divine, alien or paranormal agency.
Double counting – counting events or occurrences more than once in probabilistic reasoning, which leads to the sum of the probabilities of all cases exceeding unity.
Equivocation – using a term with more than one meaning in a statement without specifying which meaning is intended.
Ambiguous middle term – using a middle term with multiple meanings.
Definitional retreat – changing the meaning of a word when an objection is raised. Often paired with moving the goalposts (see below), as when an argument is challenged using a common definition of a term in the argument, and the arguer presents a different definition of the term and thereby demands different evidence to debunk the argument.
Motte-and-bailey fallacy – conflating two positions with similar properties, one modest and easy to defend (the "motte") and one more controversial (the "bailey"). The arguer first states the controversial position, but when challenged, states that they are advancing the modest position.
Fallacy of accent – changing the meaning of a statement by not specifying on which word emphasis falls.
Persuasive definition – purporting to use the "true" or "commonly accepted" meaning of a term while, in reality, using an uncommon or altered definition.
(cf. the if-by-whiskey fallacy)
Ecological fallacy – inferring about the nature of an entity based solely upon aggregate statistics collected for the group to which that entity belongs.
Etymological fallacy – assuming that the original or historical meaning of a word or phrase is necessarily similar to its actual present-day usage.
Fallacy of composition – assuming that something true of part of a whole must also be true of the whole.
Fallacy of division – assuming that something true of a composite thing must also be true of all or some of its parts.
False attribution – appealing to an irrelevant, unqualified, unidentified, biased or fabricated source in support of an argument.
Fallacy of quoting out of context (contextotomy, contextomy; quotation mining) – selective excerpting of words from their original context to distort the intended meaning.
False authority (single authority) – using an expert of dubious credentials or using only one opinion to promote a product or idea. Related to the appeal to authority.
False dilemma (false dichotomy, fallacy of bifurcation, black-or-white fallacy) – two alternative statements are given as the only possible options when, in reality, there are more.
False equivalence – describing two or more statements as virtually equal when they are not.
Feedback fallacy – believing in the objectivity of an evaluation to be used as the basis for improvement without verifying that the source of the evaluation is a disinterested party.
Historian's fallacy – assuming that decision-makers of the past had identical information as those subsequently analyzing the decision. This should not to be confused with presentism, in which present-day ideas and perspectives are anachronistically projected into the past.
Historical fallacy – believing that certain results occurred only because a specific process was performed, though said process may actually be unrelated to the results.
Baconian fallacy – supposing that historians can obtain the "whole truth" via induction from individual pieces of historical evidence. The "whole truth" is defined as learning "something about everything", "everything about something", or "everything about everything". In reality, a historian "can only hope to know something about something".
Homunculus fallacy – using a "middle-man" for explanation; this sometimes leads to regressive middle-men. It explains a concept in terms of the concept itself without explaining its real nature (e.g.: explaining thought as something produced by a little thinker – a homunculus – inside the head simply identifies an intermediary actor and does not explain the product or process of thinking).
Inflation of conflict – arguing that, if experts in a field of knowledge disagree on a certain point within that field, no conclusion can be reached or that the legitimacy of that field of knowledge is questionable.
If-by-whiskey – an argument that supports both sides of an issue by using terms that are emotionally sensitive and ambiguous.
Incomplete comparison – insufficient information is provided to make a complete comparison.
Intentionality fallacy – the insistence that the ultimate meaning of an expression must be consistent with the intention of the person from whom the communication originated (e.g. a work of fiction that is widely received as a blatant allegory must necessarily not be regarded as such if the author intended it not to be so).
Kafkatrapping – a sophistical rhetorical device in which any denial by an accused person serves as evidence of guilt.
Kettle logic – using multiple, jointly inconsistent arguments to defend a position.
Ludic fallacy – failing to take into account that non-regulated random occurrences unknown unknowns can affect the probability of an event taking place.
Lump of labour fallacy – the misconception that there is a fixed amount of work to be done within an economy, which can be distributed to create more or fewer jobs.
McNamara fallacy (quantitative fallacy) – making an argument using only quantitative observations (measurements, statistical or numerical values) and discounting subjective information that focuses on quality (traits, features, or relationships).
Mind projection fallacy – assuming that a statement about an object describes an inherent property of the object, rather than a personal perception.
Moralistic fallacy – inferring factual conclusions from evaluative premises in violation of fact–value distinction (e.g.: inferring is from ought). Moralistic fallacy is the inverse of naturalistic fallacy.
Moving the goalposts (raising the bar) – argument in which evidence presented in response to a specific claim is dismissed and some other (often greater) evidence is demanded.
Nirvana fallacy (perfect-solution fallacy) – solutions to problems are rejected because they are not perfect.
Package deal – treating essentially dissimilar concepts as though they were essentially similar.
Proof by assertion – a proposition is repeatedly restated regardless of contradiction; sometimes confused with argument from repetition (argumentum ad infinitum, argumentum ad nauseam).
Prosecutor's fallacy – a low probability of false matches does not mean a low probability of some false match being found.
Proving too much – an argument that results in an overly generalized conclusion (e.g.: arguing that drinking alcohol is bad because in some instances it has led to spousal or child abuse).
Psychologist's fallacy – an observer presupposes the objectivity of their own perspective when analyzing a behavioral event.
Referential fallacy – assuming that all words refer to existing things and that the meaning of words reside within the things they refer to, as opposed to words possibly referring to no real object (e.g.: Pegasus) or that the meaning comes from how they are used (e.g.: "nobody" was in the room).
Reification (concretism, hypostatization, or the fallacy of misplaced concreteness) – treating an abstract belief or hypothetical construct as if it were a concrete, real event or physical entity (e.g.: saying that evolution selects which traits are passed on to future generations; evolution is not a conscious entity with agency).
Retrospective determinism – believing that, because an event has occurred under some circumstance, the circumstance must have made the event inevitable (e.g.: because someone won the lottery while wearing their lucky socks, wearing those socks made winning the lottery inevitable).
Slippery slope (thin edge of the wedge, camel's nose) – asserting that a proposed, relatively small, first action will inevitably lead to a chain of related events resulting in a significant and negative event and, therefore, should not be permitted.
Special pleading – the arguer attempts to cite something as an exemption to a generally accepted rule or principle without justifying the exemption (e.g.: an orphaned defendant who murdered their parents asking for leniency).

Response:
Three informal fallacies are:
- False Authority: Using an expert with dubious credentials to promote an argument
- Incomplete Comparison: Not enough information was provided to adequately make a comparison
- Proof by Assertion: Restating the same argument regardless of counter arguments and contradictions


Instruction: Who are the Wagner group

Context: The Wagner Group (Russian: Группа Вагнера, tr. Gruppa Vagnera), also known as PMC Wagner (Russian: ЧВК «Вагнер», tr. ChVK «Vagner»; lit. 'Wagner Private Military Company'), is a Russian paramilitary organization. It is variously described as a private military company (PMC), a network of mercenaries, or a de facto private army of Russian President Vladimir Putin. The group operates beyond the law in Russia, where private military contractors are officially forbidden

Response: They are a private military organization that is endorsed by Russian President Vladimir Putin and is being used in the ongoing war against Ukraine.


Instruction: How do you become more successful?

Response: While success is defined as the accomplishment of an aim or purpose, there are many different ways to find success. Many believe as long as you are passionate, do what you love and work hard, the possibilities and heights of success are unlimited.


Instruction: Where is the home country of Joan of Arc?

Response: France


Instruction: Write do's and don'ts for handling a PR crisis. Make them directive and easy for anyone to understand and follow.

Response:
Do:

Assume "worst-case" outcomes for planning purposes.
Inform key audiences regularly and accurately from the outset.
Ensure communications are candid, accurate and timely.
Focus on concrete actions being taken to understand or address the issue.
Retain control of the story. Both positive and negative information needs to come from the company to help assure a transparent posture.
Provide information that's relevant to the public's interest rather than just the company's.
Consider seeking third-party support to help explain the crisis to various audiences.
Explain the situation directly to key audiences using the channels that are familiar to them.
Where appropriate, contact public officials and leaders proactively. Keep them informed throughout the process.

Don't:

Be silent or make “no comment” statements — they are often interpreted as admissions of guilt and lack of preparation.
Make "off-the-record" statements — there is no such thing in a crisis situation.
Speculate on anything or provide incomplete information. Stick to the facts.
Let erroneous information or ill-informed opinions go unchallenged.
Release sensitive or proprietary information.
Try to minimize the problem, but also don’t make it a bigger deal than it is. Match the level of your response to the severity of the issue.
Rely on communications alone to fix a crisis. You have to address the issue that led to the PR crisis in the first place.


Instruction: Why Paris is know as the city of light ?

Response: This is more a marketing conception of Paris, some historians think that this name came from the time where Philippe Lebon installed gas lighting on city monuments, covered passages and streets. Since then, more than 56000 street lights make Paris the city of light


Instruction: Give me some tips for increase my savings

Response:
To increase the savings, one needs to always strike a mindful balance between wants and needs and more importantly, it also depends on individual circumstances. Here are some things that one can start doing to increase the savings

1. Try to pay off the debt as soon as possible.
2. The principal of "Pay oneself first". It doesn't mean spend this money on wishes, but on the contrary, first put the fixed amount in the savings accounts and then try to go by your expenses.
3. Track your expenses. Sometimes we just don't know that we have so many useless subscriptions that are squeezing your hard earned money under your own eyes.
4. Try to cook at home rather than going to the restaurants or ordering food online on frequent basis.


Instruction: What are some good techniques for cooking a steak?

Response:
Most would agree that the most important element of cooking a steak to get optimal flavor is to be able to achieve very high heat on the cooking surface. High heat would be 500 degrees or more.

Where opinion varies is when to put the steak onto that high heat surface.

The more traditional technique calls for searing the steak on both sides first, and then cooking it until you hit your target temperature.

But more and more, people seem to prefer what many call a "reverse sear" technique, in which you would slow roast the steak until it is near done, and then placing the steak on the high heat surface to achieve a very dark, even sear all over the steak's surface.


Instruction: Tell me which season is associated with each of these items: flowers, snowflakes, leaves falling, beaches

Response: flowers: spring, snowflakes: winter, leaves falling: autumn, beaches: summer


Instruction: What is the most popular sport in the UK?

Response: Football is the most popular game played in the U.K. and follows a traditional league system which consists of more than one hundred teams. The most popular league is known as the Premier League and consists of the 20 best teams from all over the U.K. The most popular of these teams are Manchester City, Manchester United, Liverpool, Arsenal and Chelsea. Football in the U.K. is governed by the Football Association which is one of the oldest governing bodies in the entire world. The two most famous Football Championships in the U.K. are the FA Cup and the Football League Cup. There are 92 professional football clubs that participate in each of these tournaments each year.


Instruction: Explain different pizza styles

Response:
New York style pizza is composed of a thin crust that is cooked to a crispy consistency. The sauce is typically a basic tomato puree with some seasoning. Cheese and sauce is spread uniformly within a half inch of the edge of the circular dough. Slices of a New York pizza are portable and are often eating without utensils. New York pizza has a traditional set of optional toppings, including pepperoni, mushrooms, sausage and onions.

Chicago style pizza is often cooked in a deep, round pan. The crust is composed of a flaky dough that is similar to a pastry. Sauces are often rich and have a chunky consistency. Slices of this pizza are usually eaten with the assistance of a knife and fork.

Detroit style pizza is often cooked in a deep, rectangular pan. The bottom of the pan is often oiled or seasoned so that the bottom of the crust is browned and crispy. Cheese is applied to the edge of the pan, and this provides a caramelized cheese edge. The dough is thick and airy, and slices are study enough to be eaten by hand.

Neapolitan style pizza is similar to New York but is more rustic in nature. The dough is often more thick than New York pizza and cheese slices are spread sparsely along with some basil leaves.

California style pizza is similar to New York style pizza but has non-standard toppings and sauces. For instance, a California pizza may use a pesto base as the sauce and goat cheese with walnuts as toppings.


Instruction: Who was the very first American Idol winner?

Response: Kelly Clarkson.


Instruction: Where is the basketball Hall of Fame?

Response: The Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame is an American history museum and hall of fame, located at 1000 Hall of Fame Avenue in Springfield, Massachusetts.


Instruction: How did Alfred Nobel make his money

Response: He invented Dynamite


Instruction: How can I be healthy ?

Response:
Being healthy is not a difficult task. In fact, by supporting your body and mind, making some simple tweaks to your routine, and setting small goals for yourself, you can be on the path toward living a healthier, happier life.
In order to be healthy, focus on the following things:
- Having a healthy diet: you should drink more water, eat your breakfast and respect your meals time.
- Having a healthy exercice plan.
- Being emotionally healthy.
- Building a healthy routine.


Instruction: What is data denormalization in data warehouse?

Response: Denormalize the data, which means adding redundant columns to some dimension tables to make querying and working with the data faster and easier. The purpose is to trade some redundancy (duplication of data) in the data model for increased query speed, by avoiding computationally expensive join operations.


Instruction: Identify the bird from the list: Barn owl, Python, Chimpanzee

Response: Barn owl


Instruction: Who was John Moses Browning?

Context:
John Moses Browning (January 23, 1855 – November 26, 1926) was an American firearm designer who developed many varieties of military and civilian firearms, cartridges, and gun mechanisms – many of which are still in use around the world. He made his first firearm at age 13 in his father's gun shop and was awarded the first of his 128 firearm patents on October 7, 1879, at the age of 24. He is regarded as one of the most successful firearms designers of the 19th and 20th centuries and pioneered the development of modern repeating, semi-automatic, and automatic firearms.

Browning influenced nearly all categories of firearms design, especially the autoloading of ammunition. He invented, or made significant improvements to, single-shot, lever-action, and pump-action rifles and shotguns. He developed the first reliable and compact autoloading pistols by inventing the telescoping bolt, then integrating the bolt and barrel shroud into what is known as the pistol slide. Browning's telescoping bolt design is now found on nearly every modern semi-automatic pistol, as well as several modern fully automatic weapons. He also developed the first gas-operated firearm, the Colt–Browning Model 1895 machine gun – a system that surpassed mechanical recoil operation to become the standard for most high-power self-loading firearm designs worldwide. He also made significant contributions to automatic cannon development.

Browning's most successful designs include the M1911 pistol, the water-cooled M1917, the air-cooled M1919, and heavy M2 machine guns, the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle, and the Browning Auto-5 – the first semi-automatic shotgun. Some of these arms are still manufactured, often with only minor changes in detail and cosmetics to those assembled by Browning or his licensees. The Browning-designed M1911 and Hi-Power are some of the most copied firearms in the world.

Response:
John Moses Browning is one of the most well-known designer of modern firearms. He started building firearms in his father's shop at the age of 13, and was awarded his first patent when he was 24.

He designed the first reliable automatic pistol, and the first gas-operated firearm, as well inventing or improving single-shot, lever-action, and pump-action rifles and shotguns.

Today, he is most well-known for the M1911 pistol, the Browning Automatic Rifle, and the Auto-5 shotgun, all of which are in still in current production in either their original design, or with minor changes. His M1911 and Hi-Power pistols designs are some of the most reproduced firearms in the world today.


Instruction: How does meditation help?

Response: Meditation helps relax the mind by helping it focus on a specific object (such as breathing). This brings the mind to that object by cutting down the noise of multitude of thoughts that keep swarming in our minds. Meditation also helps train the mind to focus on a topic and be more present in conversations, with people or at work. Finally, it's helps reduce stress too as the mind does not spend too much time circling on negative thoughts.


Instruction: What is the best musical instrument to learn?

Response: Piano. It is the kind of all musical instruments. With a tuned piano, even as a beginner, you can play simple and beautiful songs after learning it for a short amount of time. Playing piano is very good for brain development, especially from the intricate muscle movement from your fingers. Often studies have shown a positive correlation between high IQ and people who are good at playing piano. In some way, piano is designed in a very scientific way, since it is based on frequencies. You can also be very creative when playing piano. It is the best instrument to compose songs.


Instruction: Identify the bird from the list: Cockroach, Hawfinch, Humpback whale

Response: Hawfinch


Instruction: How should I learn guitar?

Response: Guitar is learned best with a teacher and through many hours of practice. In addition, there are many helpful online resources available to learn guitar.


Instruction: How to get a good Survey for a product

Response: Firstly you need to respond to the customer with in SLA and try to engage in all the triaging things you are doing to debug the case. secondly schedule 1-1 with customer to see if this can reproduced in the call. if it is a bug, please raise it with the developer to see if they can fix it. finally build the trust and confidence in the product and try to meet customer expectations.


Instruction: What is the sun sign of someone born november 12

Response: scorpio


Instruction: What makes trees and plants green?

Response: Trees, plants and algae are green because of chlorophyl and are actually perceived as green because chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light but reflects green light.


Instruction: Who is the successor of Queen Elizabeth II ?

Response: Charles III


Instruction: What are some disadvantages of the way the tax code treats incentive stock options?

Response: There are three primary problems with the way the tax code treats incentive stock options. First, the tax code gives an employee a strong incentive to exercise the options early on, to achieve the tax benefit relating to the special option treatment. This means the tax code encourages young employees to write a check to their employer at a time when their entire financial life is likely to be dependent on that employer. This is the exact opposite of diversification, a key goal of personal financial management. The second issue is that the alternative minimum tax (AMT) is imposed at the time of exercise. This requires a potentially large cash outlay, at a time when the employee is unlikely to have sufficient liquidity to meet the burden. So not only does the employee have to pay his or her employer to cover the exercise premium, he or she has to send funds to the Internal Revenue Service as well. Finally, the requirement that an employee terminating employment must exercise within three months of termination date to preserve the tax advantage of the options encourages exercise at a time when the employee may not have sufficient funds, and may be looking at financial uncertainty if he or she does not yet have a new job lined up. The advantages of incentive stock options are significant, but they encourage the wrong behavior.


Instruction: Is it possible to raise your child trilingual?

Response: Yes. However there are a couple of things to keep in mind. Parents should only talk to their children in their mother tongue. A language is not only a way to communicate, it transmits also tradition, culture, emotions, mindset and many other habits that are typical in a specific country. Parents should not mix languages as children need to learn that a specific person has to be addressed in a specific language, otherwise they learn that languages can be mixed. The passive skills are always bigger than the active language skills, don't give up too early! They will make use of their passive language skills at some point. It is easier to learn languages if you also listen to music, watch movies in different languages and have friends that speak those languages. Remember that every person is different. Even if you raise different kids the same way, some of them might learn languages easier than others. Languages are a gift that will always help you to understand other cultures, people and mindsets and expand your horizons.


Instruction: List the trim levels available for the F-150 Lightning. Separate them with a comma.

Context: For the 2022 model year, the F-150 Lightning is available in four trim levels: Pro, XLT, Lariat, and Platinum. The Pro trim is only available with the smaller-capacity battery, and the Platinum only offers the higher-capacity battery, although all other trims include the smaller-capacity battery as standard equipment, but also offer the higher-capacity battery as an option.

Response: The F-150 Lightning is available in four trim levels: Pro, XLT, Lariat, and Platinum.


Instruction: What are the words of House Crakehall?

Response: "None So Fierce"


Instruction: I'm sorting my fresh food into two groups. Which are fruits and which are vegetables? Apple, spinach, banana broccoli, potato, plum, pear, avocado and peach.

Response: Potato, broccoli and spinach are vegetables. Apple, pear, peach, plum, avocado and banana are fruit.


Instruction: Which is stronger - a lion or a tiger?

Response: It really depends on what attributes are being judged. If we look at one of the most telling traits between the two - the family - the lion would be the clear winner. They live in prides and hunt as a family unit. They also rely on the pride to protect their young and their territory from invaders. A tiger is a solitary animal, so it is independent and does not have the social constructs as that of a lion.


Instruction: When did the global population reach 8 billion people?

Context:
The UN estimated that the world population reached one billion for the first time in 1804. It was another 123 years before it reached two billion in 1927, but it took only 33 years to reach three billion in 1960. Thereafter, it took 14 years for the global population to reach four billion in 1974, 13 years to reach five billion in 1987, 12 years to reach six billion in 1999 and, according to the United States Census Bureau, 13 years to reach seven billion in March 2012. The United Nations, however, estimated that the world population reached seven billion in October 2011.

According to the UN, the global population reached eight billion in November 2022, but because the growth rate is slowing, it will take another 15 years to reach around 9 billion by 2037 and 20 years to reach 10 billion by 2057. Alternative scenarios for 2050 range from a low of 7.4 billion to a high of more than 10.6 billion. Projected figures vary depending on underlying statistical assumptions and the variables used in projection calculations, especially the fertility and mortality variables. Long-range predictions to 2150 range from a population decline to 3.2 billion in the "low scenario", to "high scenarios" of 24.8 billion. One extreme scenario predicted a massive increase to 256 billion by 2150, assuming the global fertility rate remained at its 1995 level of 3.04 children per woman; however, by 2010 the global fertility rate had declined to 2.52.

There is no estimation for the exact day or month the world's population surpassed one or two billion. The points at which it reached three and four billion were not officially noted, but the International Database of the United States Census Bureau placed them in July 1959 and April 1974 respectively. The United Nations did determine, and commemorate, the "Day of 5 Billion" on 11 July 1987, and the "Day of 6 Billion" on 12 October 1999. The Population Division of the United Nations declared the "Day of Seven Billion" to be 31 October 2011. The United Nations marked the birth of the eight billionth person on 15 November 2022.

Response: According to the UN, the global population reached eight billion in November 2022


Instruction: Give me a summary about the company Nobo

Context:
Nobo is a manufacturing company in Norway. It started as NOrsk BOttefabrikk (the Norwegian Bucket Factory) in Lade, Trondheim in 1918 - the name Nobo is a contraction of the original title. The factory originally produced only buckets, but later made several sheet iron products as well. It now manufactures desks, electric wall heaters and filing cabinets. The company developed and a new factory was built in Stjordal. Nobo then produced electric heating accessories only, which it is still doing today.

In the 1990s the original Nobø factory was closed down and the area is now a housing estate of about 220 houses and flats, called Ingemann Torps Street or Nobø-tomta (Nobø-field). The area was planned by Heimdal Utbyggingsselskap and Pir II Architects.

Response:
Nobo is a manufacturing company in Norway. It started as NOrsk BOttefabrikk (the Norwegian Bucket Factory) in Lade, Trondheim in 1918 - the name Nobo is a contraction of the original title. The factory originally produced only buckets, but later made several sheet iron products as well. It now manufactures desks, electric wall heaters and filing cabinets. The company developed and a new factory was built in Stjordal. Nobo then produced electric heating accessories only, which it is still doing today.

In the 1990s the original Nobo factory was closed down and the area is now a housing estate of about 220 houses and flats, called Ingemann Torps Street or Nobo-tomta (Nobo-field). The area was planned by Heimdal Utbyggingsselskap and Pir II Architects.


Instruction: What is Lawson in Japan?

Context: Lawson, Inc. (株式会社ローソン, Kabushiki gaisha Rōson) is a convenience store franchise chain in Japan. The store originated in the United States in Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio, but exists today as a Japanese company based in Shinagawa, Tokyo.

Response: Lawson is a convenience store franchise chain in Japan


Instruction: Given these paragraphs about Large language models, what is hallucination?

Context:
A large language model (LLM) is a language model consisting of a neural network with many parameters (typically billions of weights or more), trained on large quantities of unlabelled text using self-supervised learning. LLMs emerged around 2018 and perform well at a wide variety of tasks. This has shifted the focus of natural language processing research away from the previous paradigm of training specialized supervised models for specific tasks.

Properties
Though the term large language model has no formal definition, it often refers to deep learning models having a parameter count on the order of billions or more. LLMs are general purpose models which excel at a wide range of tasks, as opposed to being trained for one specific task (such as sentiment analysis, named entity recognition, or mathematical reasoning). The skill with which they accomplish tasks, and the range of tasks at which they are capable, seems to be a function of the amount of resources (data, parameter-size, computing power) devoted to them, in a way that is not dependent on additional breakthroughs in design.

Though trained on simple tasks along the lines of predicting the next word in a sentence, neural language models with sufficient training and parameter counts are found to capture much of the syntax and semantics of human language. In addition, large language models demonstrate considerable general knowledge about the world, and are able to "memorize" a great quantity of facts during training.

Hallucinations
Main article: Hallucination (artificial intelligence)
In artificial intelligence in general, and in large language models in particular, a "hallucination" is a confident response that does not seem to be justified by the model's training data.

Emergent abilities

On a number of natural language benchmarks involving tasks such as question answering, models perform no better than random chance until they reach a certain scale (in this case, measured by training computation), at which point their performance sharply increases. These are examples of emergent abilities.
Unpredictable abilities that have been observed in large language models but that were not present in simpler models (and that were not explicitly designed into the model) are usually called "emergent abilities". Researchers note that such abilities "cannot be predicted simply by extrapolating the performance of smaller models". These abilities are discovered rather than programmed-in or designed, in some cases only after the LLM has been publicly deployed. Hundreds of emergent abilities have been described. Examples include multi-step arithmetic, taking college-level exams, identifying the intended meaning of a word, chain-of-thought prompting, decoding the International Phonetic Alphabet, unscrambling a word’s letters, identifying offensive content in paragraphs of Hinglish (a combination of Hindi and English), and generating a similar English equivalent of Kiswahili proverbs.

Architecture and training
Large language models have most commonly used the transformer architecture, which, since 2018, has become the standard deep learning technique for sequential data (previously, recurrent architectures such as the LSTM were most common). LLMs are trained in an unsupervised manner on unannotated text. A left-to-right transformer is trained to maximize the probability assigned to the next word in the training data, given the previous context. Alternatively, an LLM may use a bidirectional transformer (as in the example of BERT), which assigns a probability distribution over words given access to both preceding and following context. In addition to the task of predicting the next word or "filling in the blanks", LLMs may be trained on auxiliary tasks which test their understanding of the data distribution such as Next Sentence Prediction (NSP), in which pairs of sentences are presented and the model must predict whether they appear side-by-side in the training corpus.

The earliest LLMs were trained on corpora having on the order of billions of words. The first model in OpenAI's GPT series was trained in 2018 on BookCorpus, consisting of 985 million words. In the same year, BERT was trained on a combination of BookCorpus and English Wikipedia, totalling 3.3 billion words. In the years since then, training corpora for LLMs have increased by orders of magnitude, reaching up to hundreds of billions or trillions of tokens.

LLMs are computationally expensive to train. A 2020 study estimated the cost of training a 1.5 billion parameter model (1-2 orders of magnitude smaller than the state of the art at the time) at $1.6 million.

A 2020 analysis found that neural language models' capability (as measured by training loss) increased smoothly in a power law relationship with number of parameters, quantity of training data, and computation used for training. These relationships were tested over a wide range of values (up to seven orders of magnitude) and no attenuation of the relationship was observed at the highest end of the range (including for network sizes up to trillions of parameters).

Application to downstream tasks
Between 2018 and 2020, the standard method for harnessing an LLM for a specific natural language processing (NLP) task was to fine tune the model with additional task-specific training. It has subsequently been found that more powerful LLMs such as GPT-3 can solve tasks without additional training via "prompting" techniques, in which the problem to be solved is presented to the model as a text prompt, possibly with some textual examples of similar problems and their solutions.

Fine-tuning
Main article: Fine-tuning (machine learning)
Fine-tuning is the practice of modifying an existing pretrained language model by training it (in a supervised fashion) on a specific task (e.g. sentiment analysis, named entity recognition, or part-of-speech tagging). It is a form of transfer learning. It generally involves the introduction of a new set of weights connecting the final layer of the language model to the output of the downstream task. The original weights of the language model may be "frozen", such that only the new layer of weights connecting them to the output are learned during training. Alternatively, the original weights may receive small updates (possibly with earlier layers frozen).

Prompting
See also: Prompt engineering and Few-shot learning (natural language processing)
In the prompting paradigm, popularized by GPT-3, the problem to be solved is formulated via a text prompt, which the model must solve by providing a completion (via inference). In "few-shot prompting", the prompt includes a small number of examples of similar (problem, solution) pairs. For example, a sentiment analysis task of labelling the sentiment of a movie review could be prompted as follows:

Review: This movie stinks.
Sentiment: negative

Review: This movie is fantastic!
Sentiment:

If the model outputs "positive", then it has correctly solved the task. In zero-shot prompting, no solve examples are provided. An example of a zero-shot prompt for the same sentiment analysis task would be "The sentiment associated with the movie review 'This movie is fantastic!' is".

Few-shot performance of LLMs has been shown to achieve competitive results on NLP tasks, sometimes surpassing prior state-of-the-art fine-tuning approaches. Examples of such NLP tasks are translation, question answering, cloze tasks, unscrambling words, and using a novel word in a sentence. The creation and optimisation of such prompts is called prompt engineering.

Instruction tuning
Instruction tuning is a form of fine-tuning designed to facilitate more natural and accurate zero-shot prompting interactions. Given a text input, a pretrained language model will generate a completion which matches the distribution of text on which it was trained. A naive language model given the prompt "Write an essay about the main themes of Hamlet." might provide a completion such as "A late penalty of 10% per day will be applied to submissions received after March 17." In instruction tuning, the language model is trained on many examples of tasks formulated as natural language instructions, along with appropriate responses. Various techniques for instruction tuning have been applied in practice. OpenAI's InstructGPT protocol involves supervised fine-tuning on a dataset of human-generated (prompt, response) pairs, followed by reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF), in which a reward function was learned based on a dataset of human preferences. Another technique, "self-instruct", fine-tunes the language model on a training set of examples which are themselves generated by an LLM (bootstrapped from a small initial set of human-generated examples).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_language_model

Response: In artificial intelligence in general, and in large language models in particular, a "hallucination" is a confident response that does not seem to be justified by the model's training data.