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In physics, electromagnetism is an interaction that occurs between particles with electric charge via electromagnetic fields. The electromagnetic force is one of the four fundamental forces of nature. It is the dominant force in the interactions of atoms and molecules. Electromagnetism can be thought of as a combinatio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetism |
Newton's law of universal gravitation describes gravity as a force by stating that every particle attracts every other particle in the universe with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers of mass. Separated objects attra... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation |
In the study of heat transfer, Newton's law of cooling is a physical law which states that the rate of heat loss of a body is directly proportional to the difference in the temperatures between the body and its environment. The law is frequently qualified to include the condition that the temperature difference is smal... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_cooling |
In machine learning, a neural network (also artificial neural network or neural net, abbreviated ANN or NN) is a computational model inspired by the structure and functions of biological neural networks.
A neural network consists of connected units or nodes called artificial neurons, which loosely model the neurons in ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_network_%28machine_learning%29 |
Counting is the process of determining the number of elements of a finite set of objects; that is, determining the size of a set. The traditional way of counting consists of continually increasing a (mental or spoken) counter by a unit for every element of the set, in some order, while marking (or displacing) those ele... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counting |
The atomic nucleus is the small, dense region consisting of protons and neutrons at the center of an atom, discovered in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford at the University of Manchester based on the 1909 Geiger–Marsden gold foil experiment. After the discovery of the neutron in 1932, models for a nucleus composed of protons ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_nucleus%23Nuclear_models |
Wireless communication (or just wireless, when the context allows) is the transfer of information (telecommunication) between two or more points without the use of an electrical conductor, optical fiber or other continuous guided medium for the transfer. The most common wireless technologies use radio waves. With radio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless |
In statistical hypothesis testing, a result has statistical significance when a result at least as "extreme" would be very infrequent if the null hypothesis were true. More precisely, a study's defined significance level, denoted by
$$
\alpha
$$
, is the probability of the study rejecting the null hypothesis, given th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_significance |
Alpha decay or α-decay is a type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits an alpha particle (helium nucleus). The parent nucleus transforms or "decays" into a daughter product, with a mass number that is reduced by four and an atomic number that is reduced by two. An alpha particle is identical to the nucl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_decay |
In computer science and computer engineering, computer architecture is a description of the structure of a computer system made from component parts. It can sometimes be a high-level description that ignores details of the implementation. At a more detailed level, the description may include the instruction set archite... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_architecture |
Software testability is the degree to which a software artifact (e.g. a software system, module, requirement, or design document) supports testing in a given test context. If the testability of an artifact is high, then finding faults in the system (if any) by means of testing is easier.
Formally, some systems are test... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_testability |
In computational complexity, problems that are in the complexity class NP but are neither in the class P nor NP-complete are called NP-intermediate, and the class of such problems is called NPI. Ladner's theorem, shown in 1975 by Richard E. Ladner, is a result asserting that, if P ≠ NP, then NPI is not empty; that is, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NP-intermediate |
In quantum mechanics, an atomic orbital () is a function describing the location and wave-like behavior of an electron in an atom. This function describes an electron's charge distribution around the atom's nucleus, and can be used to calculate the probability of finding an electron in a specific region around the nucl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_orbital |
In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm () is a finite sequence of mathematically rigorous instructions, typically used to solve a class of specific problems or to perform a computation. Algorithms are used as specifications for performing calculations and data processing. More advanced algorithms can use con... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm |
Architecture is the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. It is both the process and the product of sketching, conceiving, planning, designing, and constructing buildings or other structures. The term comes ; ; . Architectural works, in the material ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture |
Algorithmic inference gathers new developments in the statistical inference methods made feasible by the powerful computing devices widely available to any data analyst. Cornerstones in this field are computational learning theory, granular computing, bioinformatics, and, long ago, structural probability .
The main foc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithmic_inference |
Cross-site scripting (XSS) is a type of security vulnerability that can be found in some web applications. XSS attacks enable attackers to inject client-side scripts into web pages viewed by other users. A cross-site scripting vulnerability may be used by attackers to bypass access controls such as the same-origin poli... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-site_scripting |
In statistical inference, specifically predictive inference, a prediction interval is an estimate of an interval in which a future observation will fall, with a certain probability, given what has already been observed. Prediction intervals are often used in regression analysis.
A simple example is given by a six-sided... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prediction_interval |
Hybrid nuclear fusion–fission (hybrid nuclear power) is a proposed means of generating power by use of a combination of nuclear fusion and fission processes.
The basic idea is to use high-energy fast neutrons from a fusion reactor to trigger fission in non-fissile fuels like U-238 or Th-232. Each neutron can trigger se... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fusion%E2%80%93fission_hybrid |
In mathematics, a commutative ring is a ring in which the multiplication operation is commutative. The study of commutative rings is called commutative algebra. Complementarily, noncommutative algebra is the study of ring properties that are not specific to commutative rings. This distinction results from the high numb... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutative_ring |
In mathematics, a multivalued function, multiple-valued function, many-valued function, or multifunction, is a function that has two or more values in its range for at least one point in its domain. It is a set-valued function with additional properties depending on context; some authors do not distinguish between set-... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multivalued_function |
In mathematical logic and type theory, the λ-cube (also written lambda cube) is a framework introduced by Henk Barendregt to investigate the different dimensions in which the calculus of constructions is a generalization of the simply typed λ-calculus. Each dimension of the cube corresponds to a new kind of dependency ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda_cube |
Condensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic and microscopic physical properties of matter, especially the solid and liquid phases, that arise from electromagnetic forces between atoms and electrons. More generally, the subject deals with condensed phases of matter: systems of many ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics |
In statistics, nonlinear regression is a form of regression analysis in which observational data are modeled by a function which is a nonlinear combination of the model parameters and depends on one or more independent variables. The data are fitted by a method of successive approximations (iterations).
## General
In n... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_regression |
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####
In probability theory and statistics, variance is the expected value of the squared deviation from the mean of a random variable. The standard deviation (SD) is obtained as the square root of the variance. Variance is a measure of dispersion, meaning it is a measure of how far a set of numbers is spread out... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variance%23Sample_variance |
In computer science and operations research, approximation algorithms are efficient algorithms that find approximate solutions to optimization problems (in particular NP-hard problems) with provable guarantees on the distance of the returned solution to the optimal one. Approximation algorithms naturally arise in the f... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Approximation_algorithm |
EigenMoments is a set of orthogonal, noise robust, invariant to rotation, scaling and translation and distribution sensitive moments. Their application can be found in signal processing and computer vision as descriptors of the signal or image. The descriptors can later be used for classification purposes.
It is obtain... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenmoments |
## Automata
theory is the study of abstract machines and automata, as well as the computational problems that can be solved using them. It is a theory in theoretical computer science with close connections to cognitive science and mathematical logic. The word automata comes from the Greek word αὐτόματος, which means "... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automata_theory |
Pattern-Oriented Software Architecture is a series of software engineering books describing software design patterns.
## Reception
David E. DeLano of C++ Report praised the first volume, writing, "Overall this text is good and I recommend it as an addition to any collection of books on patterns." He said "some of the l... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern-Oriented_Software_Architecture |
Natural language processing (NLP) is a subfield of computer science and especially artificial intelligence. It is primarily concerned with providing computers with the ability to process data encoded in natural language and is thus closely related to information retrieval, knowledge representation and computational lin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language_processing |
In theoretical computer science, a computational problem is one that asks for a solution in terms of an algorithm. For example, the problem of factoring
"Given a positive integer n, find a nontrivial prime factor of n."
is a computational problem that has a solution, as there are many known integer factorization algor... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_problem |
In computer science, program optimization, code optimization, or software optimization is the process of modifying a software system to make some aspect of it work more efficiently or use fewer resources. In general, a computer program may be optimized so that it executes more rapidly, or to make it capable of operatin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Program_optimization |
Discrete geometry and combinatorial geometry are branches of geometry that study combinatorial properties and constructive methods of discrete geometric objects. Most questions in discrete geometry involve finite or discrete sets of basic geometric objects, such as points, lines, planes, circles, spheres, polygons, an... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_geometry |
In control theory, a distributed-parameter system (as opposed to a lumped-parameter system) is a system whose state space is infinite-dimensional. Such systems are therefore also known as infinite-dimensional systems. Typical examples are systems described by partial differential equations or by delay differential equa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_parameter_system |
In mathematical logic and computer science, the lambda-mu calculus is an extension of the lambda calculus introduced by Michel Parigot. It introduces two new operators: the μ operator (which is completely different both from the μ operator found in computability theory and from the μ operator of modal μ-calculus) and t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda-mu_calculus |
In theoretical physics, quantum field theory (QFT) is a theoretical framework that combines field theory and the principle of relativity with ideas behind quantum mechanics. QFT is used in particle physics to construct physical models of subatomic particles and in condensed matter physics to construct models of quasipa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_field_theory |
A distributor is an electric and mechanical device used in the ignition system of older spark ignition engines. The distributor's main function is to route electricity from the ignition coil to each spark plug at the correct time.
## Design
A distributor consists of a rotating arm ('rotor') that is attached to the top... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributor |
In computational complexity theory, a problem is NP-complete when:
1. It is a decision problem, meaning that for any input to the problem, the output is either "yes" or "no".
1. When the answer is "yes", this can be demonstrated through the existence of a short (polynomial length) solution.
1. The correctness of each s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NP-completeness |
In linear algebra, eigendecomposition is the factorization of a matrix into a canonical form, whereby the matrix is represented in terms of its eigenvalues and eigenvectors. Only diagonalizable matrices can be factorized in this way. When the matrix being factorized is a normal or real symmetric matrix, the decompositi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigendecomposition_of_a_matrix |
Code injection is a computer security exploit where a program fails to correctly process external data, such as user input, causing it to interpret the data as executable commands. An attacker using this method "injects" code into the program while it is running. Successful exploitation of a code injection vulnerabilit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_injection |
A distributed operating system is system software over a collection of independent software, networked, communicating, and physically separate computational nodes. They handle jobs which are serviced by multiple CPUs. Each individual node holds a specific software subset of the global aggregate operating system. Each s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_operating_system |
The Quantum Universe: Everything That Can Happen Does Happen is a 2011 book by the theoretical physicists Brian Cox and Jeff Forshaw.
## Overview
The book aims to provide an explanation of quantum mechanics and its impact on the modern world that is accessible to a general reader. The authors say that "our goal in writ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Quantum_Universe |
Nexperia was the NXP Semiconductors (formerly Philips Semiconductors) brand for a family of processors, primarily featuring media processor system-on-chip (SoC) and media co-processors, but also briefly including highly integrated mobile (SoC) products.
## Nexperia media processors
Philips Semiconductor began producing... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nexperia_%28processor%29 |
Secure coding is the practice of developing computer software in such a way that guards against the accidental introduction of security vulnerabilities. Defects, bugs and logic flaws are consistently the primary cause of commonly exploited software vulnerabilities. Through the analysis of thousands of reported vulnerab... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_coding |
The Cosmic Background Imager (or CBI) was a 13-element astronomical interferometer perched at an elevation of 5,080 metres (16,700 feet) at Llano de Chajnantor Observatory in the Chilean Andes. It started operations in 1999 to study the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation and ran until 2008.
CBI conducted meas... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Imager |
In wired computer networking a hop occurs when a packet is passed from one network segment to the next. Data packets pass through routers as they travel between source and destination. The hop count refers to the number of network devices through which data passes from source to destination (depending on routing protoc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hop_%28networking%29 |
Information extraction (IE) is the task of automatically extracting structured information from unstructured and/or semi-structured machine-readable documents and other electronically represented sources. Typically, this involves processing human language texts by means of natural language processing (NLP). Recent acti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_extraction |
Information security is the practice of protecting information by mitigating information risks. It is part of information risk management. It typically involves preventing or reducing the probability of unauthorized or inappropriate access to data or the unlawful use, disclosure, disruption, deletion, corruption, modif... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_security |
Active learning is a special case of machine learning in which a learning algorithm can interactively query a human user (or some other information source), to label new data points with the desired outputs. The human user must possess knowledge/expertise in the problem domain, including the ability to consult/research... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_learning_%28machine_learning%29 |
In computer programming, a function (also procedure, method, subroutine, routine, or subprogram) is a callable unit of software logic that has a well-defined interface and behavior and can be invoked multiple times.
Callable units provide a powerful programming tool. The primary purpose is to allow for the decompositio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_%28computer_programming%29 |
Refinement is a generic term of computer science that encompasses various approaches for producing correct computer programs and simplifying existing programs to enable their formal verification.
## Program refinement
In formal methods, program refinement is the verifiable transformation of an abstract (high-level) for... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refinement_%28computing%29 |
Ne-XVP was a research project executed between 2006-2008 at NXP Semiconductors. The project undertook a holistic approach to define a next generation multimedia processing architecture for embedded MPSoCs that targets programmability, performance scalability, and silicon efficiency in an evolutionary way. The evolution... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ne-XVP |
In theoretical computer science, an algorithm is correct with respect to a specification if it behaves as specified. Best explored is functional correctness, which refers to the input–output behavior of the algorithm: for each input it produces an output satisfying the specification.
Within the latter notion, partial c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correctness_%28computer_science%29 |
A mathematical model is an abstract description of a concrete system using mathematical concepts and language. The process of developing a mathematical model is termed mathematical modeling. Mathematical models are used in applied mathematics and in the natural sciences (such as physics, biology, earth science, chemis... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_model |
In computer science, a thread of execution is the smallest sequence of programmed instructions that can be managed independently by a scheduler, which is typically a part of the operating system. In many cases, a thread is a component of a process.
The multiple threads of a given process may be executed concurrently (... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thread_%28computing%29 |
In statistics a minimum-variance unbiased estimator (MVUE) or uniformly minimum-variance unbiased estimator (UMVUE) is an unbiased estimator that has lower variance than any other unbiased estimator for all possible values of the parameter.
For practical statistics problems, it is important to determine the MVUE if one... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum-variance_unbiased_estimator |
Infographics (a clipped compound of "information" and "graphics") are graphic visual representations of information, data, or knowledge intended to present information quickly and clearly. They can improve cognition by using graphics to enhance the human visual system's ability to see patterns and trends.Card, S. (200... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infographic |
Data architecture consist of models, policies, rules, and standards that govern which data is collected and how it is stored, arranged, integrated, and put to use in data systems and in organizations. Data is usually one of several architecture domains that form the pillars of an enterprise architecture or solution arc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_architecture |
In particle physics, particle decay is the spontaneous process of one unstable subatomic particle transforming into multiple other particles. The particles created in this process (the final state) must each be less massive than the original, although the total mass of the system must be conserved. A particle is unstab... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_decay |
Recursion occurs when the definition of a concept or process depends on a simpler or previous version of itself. Recursion is used in a variety of disciplines ranging from linguistics to logic. The most common application of recursion is in mathematics and computer science, where a function being defined is applied wit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recursion |
Defensive programming is a form of defensive design intended to develop programs that are capable of detecting potential security abnormalities and make predetermined responses. It ensures the continuing function of a piece of software under unforeseen circumstances. Defensive programming practices are often used where... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defensive_programming |
In computer programming, assembly language (alternatively assembler language or symbolic machine code), often referred to simply as assembly and commonly abbreviated as ASM or asm, is any low-level programming language with a very strong correspondence between the instructions in the language and the architecture's ma... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_language%23Assembler |
GraphQL is a data query and manipulation language that allows specifying what data is to be retrieved ("declarative data fetching") or modified. A GraphQL server can process a client query using data from separate sources and present the results in a unified graph. The language is not tied to any specific database or s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GraphQL |
In vector calculus and physics, a vector field is an assignment of a vector to each point in a space, most commonly Euclidean space
$$
\mathbb{R}^n
$$
. A vector field on a plane can be visualized as a collection of arrows with given magnitudes and directions, each attached to a point on the plane. Vector fields are ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_field |
The continuous and progressive aspects (abbreviated and ) are grammatical aspects that express incomplete action ("to do") or state ("to be") in progress at a specific time: they are non-habitual, imperfective aspects.
In the grammars of many languages the two terms are used interchangeably. This is also the case with... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_and_progressive_aspects |
In object-oriented (OO) and functional programming, an immutable object (unchangeable object) is an object whose state cannot be modified after it is created. This is in contrast to a mutable object (changeable object), which can be modified after it is created. In some cases, an object is considered immutable even if ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immutable_object |
Memory management (also dynamic memory management, dynamic storage allocation, or dynamic memory allocation) is a form of resource management applied to computer memory. The essential requirement of memory management is to provide ways to dynamically allocate portions of memory to programs at their request, and free it... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_management |
Thermodynamics is expressed by a mathematical framework of thermodynamic equations which relate various thermodynamic quantities and physical properties measured in a laboratory or production process. Thermodynamics is based on a fundamental set of postulates, that became the laws of thermodynamics.
## Introduction
On... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_equations |
Hypercomputation or super-Turing computation is a set of hypothetical models of computation that can provide outputs that are not Turing-computable. For example, a machine that could solve the halting problem would be a hypercomputer; so too would one that could correctly evaluate every statement in Peano arithmetic.
T... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypercomputation |
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In celestial mechanics, the
## Lagrange
###
###
### point
s
(; also Lagrangian points or libration points) are points of equilibrium for small-mass objects under the gravitational influence of two massive orbiting bodies. Mathematically, this involves the solution of the restricted three-body problem.
No... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange_point |
A differential equation can be homogeneous in either of two respects.
A first order differential equation is said to be homogeneous if it may be written
$$
f(x,y) \, dy = g(x,y) \, dx,
$$
where and are homogeneous functions of the same degree of and . In this case, the change of variable leads to an equation of th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneous_differential_equation |
Arbitrage (, ) is the practice of taking advantage of a difference in prices in two or more marketsstriking a combination of matching deals to capitalize on the difference, the profit being the difference between the market prices at which the unit is traded. Arbitrage has the effect of causing prices of the same or v... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbitrage%23Execution_risk |
The concept entropy was first developed by German physicist Rudolf Clausius in the mid-nineteenth century as a thermodynamic property that predicts that certain spontaneous processes are irreversible or impossible. In statistical mechanics, entropy is formulated as a statistical property using probability theory. The s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy_%28statistical_thermodynamics%29 |
Internet security is a branch of computer security. It encompasses the Internet, browser security, web site security, and network security as it applies to other applications or operating systems as a whole. Its objective is to establish rules and measures to use against attacks over the Internet. The Internet is an in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_security |
Stochastic scheduling concerns scheduling problems involving random attributes, such as random processing times, random due dates, random weights, and stochastic machine breakdowns. Major applications arise in manufacturing systems, computer systems, communication systems, logistics and transportation, and machine lear... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastic_scheduling |
Convex analysis is the branch of mathematics devoted to the study of properties of convex functions and convex sets, often with applications in convex minimization, a subdomain of optimization theory.
## Convex sets
A subset
$$
C \subseteq X
$$
of some vector space
$$
X
$$
is if it satisfies any of the following e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convex_analysis |
In mathematics, general topology (or point set topology) is the branch of topology that deals with the basic set-theoretic definitions and constructions used in topology. It is the foundation of most other branches of topology, including differential topology, geometric topology, and algebraic topology.
The fundamental... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_topology |
In mathematics, non-Euclidean geometry consists of two geometries based on axioms closely related to those that specify Euclidean geometry. As Euclidean geometry lies at the intersection of metric geometry and affine geometry, non-Euclidean geometry arises by either replacing the parallel postulate with an alternative,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry |
In model theory, a first-order theory is called model complete if every embedding of its models is an elementary embedding.
Equivalently, every first-order formula is equivalent to a universal formula.
This notion was introduced by Abraham Robinson.
## Model companion and model completion
A companion of a theory T is... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_complete_theory |
In mathematics, differential refers to several related notions derived from the early days of calculus, put on a rigorous footing, such as infinitesimal differences and the derivatives of functions.
The term is used in various branches of mathematics such as calculus, differential geometry, algebraic geometry and algeb... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_%28mathematics%29 |
Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology standard that is used for exchanging data between fixed and mobile devices over short distances and building personal area networks (PANs). In the most widely used mode, transmission power is limited to 2.5 milliwatts, giving it a very short range of up to . It employs UHF... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluetooth |
The dark photon (also hidden, heavy, para-, or secluded photon) is a hypothetical hidden sector particle, proposed as a force carrier similar to the photon of electromagnetism but potentially connected to dark matter. In a minimal scenario, this new force can be introduced by extending the gauge group of the Standard M... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_photon |
Data reduction is the transformation of numerical or alphabetical digital information derived empirically or experimentally into a corrected, ordered, and simplified form. The purpose of data reduction can be two-fold: reduce the number of data records by eliminating invalid data or produce summary data and statistics ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_reduction |
The Thirring model is an exactly solvable quantum field theory which describes the self-interactions of a Dirac field in (1+1) dimensions.
## Definition
The Thirring model is given by the Lagrangian density
$$
\mathcal{L}= \overline{\psi}(i\partial\!\!\!/-m)\psi -\frac{g}{2}\left(\overline{\psi}\gamma^\mu\psi\right) \... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirring_model |
Geometrical optics, or ray optics, is a model of optics that describes light propagation in terms of rays. The ray in geometrical optics is an abstraction useful for approximating the paths along which light propagates under certain circumstances.
The simplifying assumptions of geometrical optics include that light ray... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometrical_optics |
In various interpretations of quantum mechanics, wave function collapse, also called reduction of the state vector, occurs when a wave function—initially in a superposition of several eigenstates—reduces to a single eigenstate due to interaction with the external world. This interaction is called an observation and is ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_function_collapse |
In computer science, binary search, also known as half-interval search, logarithmic search, or binary chop, is a search algorithm that finds the position of a target value within a sorted array. Binary search compares the target value to the middle element of the array. If they are not equal, the half in which the targ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_search |
The Schrödinger equation is a partial differential equation that governs the wave function of a non-relativistic quantum-mechanical system. Its discovery was a significant landmark in the development of quantum mechanics. It is named after Erwin Schrödinger, an Austrian physicist, who postulated the equation in 1925 an... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation |
The Laplace–Stieltjes transform, named for Pierre-Simon Laplace and Thomas Joannes Stieltjes, is an integral transform similar to the Laplace transform. For real-valued functions, it is the Laplace transform of a Stieltjes measure, however it is often defined for functions with values in a Banach space. It is useful in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laplace%E2%80%93Stieltjes_transform |
In statistics, an outlier is a data point that differs significantly from other observations. An outlier may be due to a variability in the measurement, an indication of novel data, or it may be the result of experimental error; the latter are sometimes excluded from the data set. stating "An outlying observation may b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outlier |
Distributed File System (DFS) is a set of client and server services that allow an organization using Microsoft Windows servers to organize many distributed SMB file shares into a distributed file system. DFS has two components to its service: Location transparency (via the namespace component) and Redundancy (via the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_File_System_%28Microsoft%29 |
An authenticator is a means used to confirm a user's identity, that is, to perform digital authentication. A person authenticates to a computer system or application by demonstrating that he or she has possession and control of an authenticator. In the simplest case, the authenticator is a common password.
Using the te... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authenticator |
In physics, statistical mechanics is a mathematical framework that applies statistical methods and probability theory to large assemblies of microscopic entities. Sometimes called statistical physics or statistical thermodynamics, its applications include many problems in a wide variety of fields such as biology, neuro... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_mechanics |
In computer architecture, predication is a feature that provides an alternative to conditional transfer of control, as implemented by conditional branch machine instructions. Predication works by having conditional (predicated) non-branch instructions associated with a predicate, a Boolean value used by the instruction... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predication_%28computer_architecture%29 |
Reinforcement learning (RL) is an interdisciplinary area of machine learning and optimal control concerned with how an intelligent agent should take actions in a dynamic environment in order to maximize a reward signal. Reinforcement learning is one of the three basic machine learning paradigms, alongside supervised le... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement_learning |
Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies atomic nuclei and their constituents and interactions, in addition to the study of other forms of nuclear matter.
Nuclear physics should not be confused with atomic physics, which studies the atom as a whole, including its electrons.
Discoveries in nuclear physics ha... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_physics |
Quadratic programming (QP) is the process of solving certain mathematical optimization problems involving quadratic functions. Specifically, one seeks to optimize (minimize or maximize) a multivariate quadratic function subject to linear constraints on the variables. Quadratic programming is a type of nonlinear program... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_programming |
Apache Hadoop () is a collection of open-source software utilities for reliable, scalable, distributed computing. It provides a software framework for distributed storage and processing of big data using the MapReduce programming model. Hadoop was originally designed for computer clusters built from commodity hardware,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_Hadoop |
Semantics is the study of linguistic meaning. It examines what meaning is, how words get their meaning, and how the meaning of a complex expression depends on its parts. Part of this process involves the distinction between sense and reference. Sense is given by the ideas and concepts associated with an expression whil... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantics |
Geometry (; ) is a branch of mathematics concerned with properties of space such as the distance, shape, size, and relative position of figures. Geometry is, along with arithmetic, one of the oldest branches of mathematics. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer. Until the 19th century,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometry |
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